Areopagitica

An Athenian orator, teacher, and historian, Isocrates’s texts offer insight into the ancient Greek political and scholarly spheres. The school he founded educated many prominent young Athenian men. Although he was a rhetorician, he was a poor public speaker, so Isocrates wrote speeches that were intended to be read rather than delivered. His written oration, On the Areopagus (c. 354), lends its title to Milton’s Areopagitica, which was also written to be read rather than delivered.

A major figure in early Christianity, Paul is believed to have written thirteen of the twenty-seven books in the New Testament. He spent the early part of his life as a Pharisee, working to dismantle the budding Christian religion and punish its members. However, he writes that he changed his views while walking along the road to Damascus. Paul claims that he saw God, who affirmed that Jesus was the messiah. He spent the rest of his life preaching and starting churches. Milton’s title, Areopagitica, references in part Paul’s sermon to the Athenians on Mars’ Hill (the same location where the council to which Isocrates addressed On the Areopagus sat). Paul was well-read and highly educated, and he infused his speech with references to Greek religion and classical literature, illustrating Milton’s point that even heathen texts can be used for Christian piety.

Charles I, a Stuart monarch, ruled Great Britain and Ireland from 1625– 1649. He subscribed to the belief that kings ruled by divine providence, and his authoritarian leadership style caused friction with Parliament and led to the English Civil War. Each incarnation of Parliament struggled for power against King Charles I. Parliament continued to fight the king over financial issues, and Charles repeatedly disbanded them. In 1629, King Charles decided to rule without them. In 1637, Charles attempted to implement a standardized prayer book on Scotland and decided to use force to coerce resisters to comply. Charles was compelled to reassemble Parliament to raise money for the subsequent Bishop Wars against Scotland, which he lost. From 1642-1651, the English Civil Wars occurred between Parliament and its supporters and King Charles I and his Royalists. King Charles I was executed in 1649, but the war continued until Charles II, the heir to the throne, fled to France instead of ascending to power. This temporarily ended the monarchy.

The English court of law at Westminster from the late 15th century until the mid-17th century was called the Star Chamber. Although it was created to oversee the administration of laws against powerful people and guarantee equal justice, it eventually became corrupt and oppressive. During the period of eleven years in which King Charles I disbanded Parliament, the Star Chamber filled in when needed. The king used the Star Chamber to take legal action against those who disagreed with his rule. This led to both the Puritans’ escape to North America and the English Civil War. King Charles I also used the Star Chamber to implement censorship laws, such as the 1632 decree prohibiting texts that offered journalistic coverage. In 1637, the Star Chamber issued a decree that banned the printing and importation of books that had not been examined, censored, and licensed by an agent of the king. The decree empowered the Stationers’ Company, a printers’ trade guild, to control the publishing industry. Between 1641 and 1642, thanks to Parliament, the decree was abolished.